Which empires and kingdoms did Ancient Egypt have conflict with?
Ancient Egypt, with its rich history spanning over three millennia, encountered numerous adversaries, allies, and competitors. For example, tribes from Libya, to the west of Egypt, frequently clashed with the Egyptians.
Throughout its history, Egypt’s location made it a crossroads for commerce, culture, and conquest. Its interactions with neighboring civilizations, whether through conflict or diplomacy, greatly influenced its historical trajectory.
While the list is extensive, here are some of the primary empires and kingdoms that Ancient Egypt had conflicts with throughout different periods of its history:
Nubians/Kushites
The relationship between Egypt and Nubia, located to the south of Egypt along the Nile River, was complex and evolved over time.
In the early history of ancient Egypt, during the periods known as the Old and Middle Kingdoms, Egypt often launched military campaigns into Nubia. These campaigns were driven by various factors, including the desire to control trade routes, access valuable resources, and expand the Egyptian empire.
A significant turning point occurred during the 25th Dynasty of Egypt. At this time, the rulers of Kush, a kingdom in Nubia, known as the Kushite kings, came to power in Egypt. This marked the establishment of the Kushite Dynasty in Egypt. The most famous of these Kushite rulers was King Piye (Piankhi), who conquered Egypt and united it under Kushite rule around 747 BC.
The Kushite rulers didn’t just conquer Egypt; they also formed alliances and engaged in cultural exchange with the Egyptian elite. They adopted many aspects of Egyptian culture and religion, and this period is sometimes referred to as the “Kushite Renaissance.”
While the Kushite Dynasty ruled Egypt for several decades, they were eventually overthrown by the Assyrians in the late 7th century BC. The Assyrians invaded Egypt and pushed the Kushite rulers back into Nubia, marking the end of the Kushite Dynasty in Egypt.
Located to Egypt’s south, Nubia was both an adversary and an ally at different times. Initially, the Old and Middle Kingdoms of Egypt launched campaigns into Nubia. However, during the 25th Dynasty, the Kushite kings from Nubia ruled over Egypt, marking the Kushite Dynasty.
Libyans
The western border of Egypt, adjacent to modern-day Libya, was historically a region where various Libyan tribes resided. These tribes often came into conflict with the Egyptians. These clashes could be over territory, resources, or other factors, and they occurred periodically throughout Egypt’s history.
The Third Intermediate Period is a phase in ancient Egyptian history that followed the end of the New Kingdom. It was characterized by political instability, foreign invasions, and division within Egypt. During this period of turmoil, Libyan chieftains gained power and influence in Egypt. Some of these Libyan leaders even managed to become pharaohs, effectively establishing the Libyan Dynasty. This dynasty is also known as the Twenty-Second Dynasty of Egypt.
The Libyan Dynasty ruled parts of Egypt from around 945 BC to 715 BC. While these rulers were originally from Libya, they assimilated into Egyptian culture and adopted Egyptian titles and customs. They established their rule in parts of the Nile Delta and Upper Egypt.
It’s worth mentioning that not all interactions between Egyptians and Libyans during this period were marked by conflict. In fact, there were periods of coexistence and cooperation between the two cultures, especially as Libyan rulers adopted Egyptian traditions.
The Libyan Dynasty eventually came to an end when the Assyrians, a powerful empire from the Near East, invaded Egypt and took control of the region. This marked the end of Libyan rule in Egypt.
Hittites
The conflict between the Hittites and Egyptians culminated in the Battle of Kadesh around 1274 BC, which involved Ramses II (also known as Ramesses the Great) and Hittite king Muwatalli II. This battle is particularly noteworthy because it led to one of the earliest recorded peace treaties in history.
A relief from Memphis showing 19th Dynasty Egyptian pharaoh Ramses II capturing his enemies – a Nubian, a Libyan and a Syrian, c. 1250 BC. Cairo Museum.
Assyrians
The Assyrian Empire, centered in the region of Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq), was a powerful and expansionist empire during the late 7th century BC. Egypt, located to the southwest of Assyria, had a long history as a distinct and influential civilization.
Esarhaddon, an Assyrian king who ruled from 681 to 669 BC, initiated the invasion of Egypt. His campaign aimed to bring Egypt under Assyrian control. The Assyrian king’s military campaigns were characterized by the use of advanced military tactics and siege warfare, which allowed the Assyrians to capture key Egyptian cities.
Under Esarhaddon’s rule, the Assyrians achieved dominance over Egypt, effectively making it a vassal state of the Assyrian Empire. He installed a local Egyptian ruler, Necho I, as a puppet pharaoh to govern on his behalf. This allowed the Assyrians to exert control over Egyptian affairs.
Esarhaddon’s son, Ashurbanipal, continued to exert Assyrian control over Egypt during his reign, which lasted from 668 to 627 BC. Ashurbanipal maintained the vassal status of Egypt, and his rule was characterized by the collection of tribute and taxes from the Egyptian population.
The Assyrian domination of Egypt during the late 7th century BC had several historical consequences. It marked a period of direct foreign rule over Egypt by a non-Egyptian power, disrupting Egypt’s long history of independence.
Also, the conflict resulted in cultural and political interactions between the Assyrians and Egyptians, influencing Egyptian art, religion, and administration during this period.
The Assyrian domination of Egypt was part of a larger pattern of conquest and expansion by the Assyrian Empire in the ancient Near East.
Eventually, the Assyrian Empire itself faced decline and collapse due to various factors, including internal strife and external pressures.
Babylonians
The Assyrian Empire, which had been a dominant force in the ancient Near East, fell into decline and eventually collapsed during the late 7th century BC. This collapse was the result of a combination of factors, including internal strife, external pressures from rival powers, and rebellions by subject peoples.
Following the fall of Assyria, the Neo-Babylonian Empire, centered in the city of Babylon (in modern-day Iraq), emerged as a major regional power. Nebuchadnezzar II, one of the most famous Babylonian kings, played a significant role in the expansion and consolidation of Babylonian power.
Nebuchadnezzar II sought to extend Babylonian influence and control over neighboring regions, and one of his military objectives was the conquest of Egypt.
The attempts to invade Egypt were part of Nebuchadnezzar’s broader military campaigns, which aimed to secure Babylonian dominance in the eastern Mediterranean and western Asia.
The historical records provide varying accounts of Nebuchadnezzar’s success in his attempts to invade Egypt. Some sources suggest that he achieved limited success in gaining control over certain regions of Egypt, while others indicate that his campaigns faced resistance and were not entirely successful in securing Egypt under Babylonian rule.
Nebuchadnezzar II’s invasions of Egypt did not result in the complete subjugation of the entire Egyptian territory. Egypt remained a complex and fragmented land with various local rulers and centers of power.
These campaigns were part of a broader pattern of power shifts and territorial disputes in the ancient Near East during this period.
READ MORE: Major Accomplishments of the Ancient Babylonians
The Babylonian Empire
Persians
Cambyses II was the son of Cyrus the Great, the founder of the Achaemenid Persian Empire. In 525 BC, Cambyses II led a successful military campaign to conquer Egypt.
This conquest marked the beginning of the 27th Dynasty, also known as the First Persian Period. During this period, Egypt came under Persian rule, and the Persian kings ruled as pharaohs.
After a period of Persian rule, Egypt experienced a brief period of independence, known as the Egyptian Revolt, which led to the expulsion of the Persians.
However, in 343 BC, Artaxerxes III, a Persian king of the Achaemenid Empire, launched a campaign to reconquer Egypt.
This reconquest initiated the Second Persian Period in Egypt, during which the Persian Empire once again controlled the region.
The Persian conquests of Egypt were part of a broader expansion of the Achaemenid Persian Empire, which became one of the largest empires in ancient history.
Persian control over Egypt had significant political, economic, and cultural implications. The Persians introduced administrative changes and integrated Egypt into their empire, which had a lasting impact on Egyptian society.
These conquests also played a role in shaping the history and politics of the eastern Mediterranean and the broader region.
In 526 BC, Persian King Cambyses II defeated Egyptian pharaoh Psamtik III. Cambyses II then crowns himself pharaoh of Egypt. Shortly after, many minor rulers in the region surrendered to Cambyses II without a fight. Some examples of those territories are the Libyans. Imaginary 19th-century illustration of Cambyses II meeting Psamtik III.
Sea Peoples
This scene from the north wall of Medinet Habu depicts the Egyptian campaign against the Sea Peoples in the Battle of the Delta, led by Ramesses III. Pharaoh Ramesses III of the New Kingdom period reigned from approximately 1186 to 1155 BC.
Around the end of the Bronze Age, mysterious naval raiders known as the Sea Peoples attacked various parts of the Eastern Mediterranean, including Egypt. Ramesses III of the New Kingdom fought these confederacies in a series of battles, which he depicted on the walls of the mortuary temple at Medinet Habu. The attacks mounted by the Sea Peoples targeted Egypt’s northeastern border along the Nile Delta, causing significant disruption and migrations.
New Kingdom pharaoh Ramesses III is known for his successful defense against the Sea Peoples. He engaged them in a series of battles, and these conflicts are depicted on the walls of his mortuary temple at Medinet Habu in Luxor, Egypt. Image: Relief from the sanctuary of the Temple of Khonsu at Karnak depicting Ramesses III
Hyksos
The Hyksos are believed to have arrived in the Nile Delta region of Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, which occurred around 1650 BC to 1550 BC.
The exact origins of the Hyksos are a subject of historical debate, but they were likely Semitic-speaking people who came from the eastern Mediterranean or the Levant.
The Hyksos succeeded in establishing their rule in the Nile Delta and founded the 15th Dynasty of Egypt. They established their capital at Avaris (modern Tell el-Dab’a). It’s believed that the Hyksos coexisted with the native Egyptian rulers of the time, specifically during the 16th and 17th Dynasties.
The Hyksos rule in Egypt is often considered a period of foreign domination and disruption. They introduced new technologies, such as the horse-drawn chariot and advanced weaponry, which gave them a military advantage.
The term “Hyksos” itself is derived from an Egyptian term that means “rulers of foreign lands,” reflecting the perception of the Hyksos as foreign rulers.
It’s important to note that while the Hyksos ruled parts of Egypt, they also had interactions with the native Egyptian population. Some scholars believe that they may have ruled as vassals or through alliances with local Egyptian rulers.
The period of Hyksos rule came to an end when native Egyptian rulers in Thebes, particularly during the 17th Dynasty, sought to reunify Egypt. Ahmose I, the founder of the 18th Dynasty, successfully led the efforts to expel the Hyksos from Egypt.
The expulsion of the Hyksos marked the beginning of the New Kingdom period in Egyptian history, characterized by a period of renewed Egyptian strength and territorial expansion.
READ MORE: Notable Accomplishments of Pharaoh Ahmose I
Ahmose I slaying a probable Hyksos. Detail of a ceremonial axe in the name of Ahmose I, treasure of Queen Ahhotep II. Luxor Museum
Macedonians
Alexander the Great of Macedon conquered Egypt without significant resistance in 332 BC. After his death, one of his generals, Ptolemy I Soter, established the Ptolemaic Dynasty, which ruled until the Roman conquest in the first century BC.
READ MORE: Alexander the Great’s Conquest of Egypt
Romans
The final blow to Egypt’s independence came when the Romans, under Octavian (later Augustus), defeated Cleopatra VII and Mark Antony at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC. Egypt then became a province of the Roman Empire.
The Battle of Actium, by Laureys a Castro, painted 1672, National Maritime Museum, London.
READ MORE: How the Romans conquered ancient Egypt
