8 Most Famous Libraries of the Ancient World
Throughout the ancient world, several libraries stood as centers of knowledge, culture, and power. These institutions not only preserved and transmitted knowledge but also functioned as spaces for research, learning, and intellectual exploration.
Here are 8 most famous libraries of the ancient world:
Great Library of Alexandria (Egypt)
Library of Alexandria was built during the early period of Ptolemaic Dynasty of Egypt. Image: 19th-century artistic rendering of the Library of Alexandria by the German artist O. Von Corven
The Great Library of Alexandria, situated in ancient Alexandria, Egypt, was a renowned ancient library within the broader Mouseion research institution. It was initially proposed by Demetrius of Phalerum and likely built during Ptolemy II Philadelphus’s reign.
With a vast collection of papyrus scrolls ranging from 40,000 to 400,000 at its peak, it elevated Alexandria as a center of knowledge.
During Ptolemy III Euergetes‘s rule, a subsidiary library was established in the Serapeum temple. The library’s decline was gradual rather than catastrophic.
Purges and intellectual exiles happened under Ptolemy VIII Physcon, and Roman dictator and general Julius Caesar‘s accidental burning of part of the library in 48 BC had uncertain effects. Some resources survived, as indicated by Greek geographer Strabo’s visit in 20 BC.
READ MORE: How Julius Caesar Conquered the Gauls
Throughout the Roman period, the library dwindled due to a lack of funding and support, eventually ceasing its membership by the 260s AD.
A possible Palmyrene invasion and imperial counterattack in 270-275 AD might have led to its destruction if it still existed. The Serapeum, a subsidiary library, persisted for some time but was vandalized and demolished in 391 AD under a decree by Bishop Theophilus of Alexandria. However, by then, it likely didn’t house books and was mainly used for philosophical gatherings.
Some notable scholars that had the pleasure of working or studying in the library included: Callimachus, Zenodotus of Ephesus, Apollonius of Rhodes, and Hero of Alexandria. Apollonius of Rhodes, the famed Greek author, is best known for composing the Argonautica, the epic poem that talks about Greek hero Jason and the Argonauts’ quest for the Golden Fleece.
READ MORE: Most Famous Heroes and Heroines in Greek Mythology
Library of Ashurbanipal (Nineveh, Assyria)
Located in the city of Nineveh (modern-day Mosul, Iraq), this library housed thousands of clay tablets written in cuneiform. Founded by Assyrian king Ashurbanipal, the Library of Ashurbanipal was notably home to parts of the “Epic of Gilgamesh.”
The Library of Ashurbanipal, also known as the Royal Library of Nineveh, was an ancient library located in the Assyrian city of Nineveh, which is in modern-day Iraq. The library was established by Ashurbanipal (reigned: 668 – 631 BC), who was the last great king of the Neo-Assyrian Empire.
According to historians, the library was renowned for its extensive collection of cuneiform tablets, which were made of clay and used for writing in the ancient Mesopotamian script. These tablets covered a wide range of subjects, including literature, history, science, religion, and law.
Revered as the last great king of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, Ashurbanipal reigned from approximately 669 to 630 BC.
One of the notable aspects of the library was its collection of literary works, including the Epic of Gilgamesh, which is one of the earliest known works of literature. Other literary texts, such as myths, legends, and religious texts, were also part of the collection.
Like many libraries on this list, the Library of Ashurbanipal is considered one of the earliest examples of a systematically organized library in the ancient world. It served not only as a repository of knowledge but also as a center for scholarship and learning.
The ruins of Nineveh and the library were rediscovered by archaeologists in the 19th century. Many of the cuneiform tablets were recovered and are now housed in various museums and collections around the world.
Like many ancient libraries, the Library of Ashurbanipal eventually fell victim to the ravages of time and the destruction of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. The library’s contents were buried under the ruins of Nineveh.
Library of Pergamum (Anatolia, Modern-day Turkey)
The Library of Pergamum, also known as the Pergamon Library, was an ancient library located in the city of Pergamum (modern-day Bergama, Turkey). Image: Site of the Library of Pergamum before excavation, 1885
The library was established during the Hellenistic period by the Attalid dynasty, particularly by the kings Eumenes II (reigned 197–159 BC) and Attalus III (reigned 138–133 BC).
The Library of Pergamum is notable for being one of the most significant libraries of the ancient world, often regarded as the second most important library after the Library of Alexandria. It played a crucial role in the preservation and dissemination of knowledge during antiquity.
The library housed an extensive collection of manuscripts, primarily in the form of papyrus scrolls. It covered a wide range of subjects, including literature, science, philosophy, medicine, and more. The library’s holdings were estimated to contain over 180,000 scrolls.
The Library of Pergamum is famous for its role in the development of parchment as a writing material. According to legend, the library’s acquisition of papyrus was restricted by the Ptolemaic rulers of Egypt, leading to the development of parchment, which was made from animal skins. Pergamum’s library became known for its high-quality parchment, sometimes referred to as “pergamentum.”
Pergamum, with its library and cultural institutions, became a significant intellectual center in the Hellenistic world. Scholars and philosophers from various regions came to study and conduct research in the city.
The Library of Pergamum was seen as a rival to the Library of Alexandria, which led to a deliberate campaign by Ptolemy VIII of Egypt to remove valuable works from Pergamum’s collection. This rivalry is said to have contributed to the library’s eventual decline.
The Library of Pergamum’s decline was also influenced by political changes, including the fall of the Attalid dynasty and the incorporation of Pergamum into the Roman Republic in 133 BC. The city’s library gradually lost its prominence.
The Libraries of Trajan’s Forum (Rome)
The Libraries of Trajan’s Forum came to prominence during the reign of the Roman Emperor Trajan (reigned: 98–117 AD). They were part of the larger complex of Trajan’s Forum, which included various buildings and monuments.
The libraries were notable for their architectural design. They were situated on either side of a grand colonnaded courtyard, with the Column of Trajan at the center. The libraries were visually impressive and contributed to the overall grandeur of the forum.
These libraries served as repositories of knowledge, housing a collection of scrolls and books. While the exact number of volumes in each library is not known, they were likely significant, given the importance of Trajan’s Forum as a center of culture and learning in ancient Rome.
The libraries were open to the public, reflecting the Roman tradition of providing access to knowledge for citizens and scholars. They were accessible to both Roman and non-Roman visitors.
Trajan’s Forum, located in ancient Rome, was the site of two important libraries known as the Libraries of Trajan’s Forum. Image: Reconstruction view of the Trajan’s Column
The architectural design of the libraries included large reading rooms with ample space for readers and scholars. The interior spaces were adorned with decorative elements, creating an aesthetically pleasing environment for study and contemplation.
Like many ancient libraries, the Libraries of Trajan’s Forum faced a period of decline, especially during the later years of the Roman Empire. The library complex, along with other structures in Trajan’s Forum, gradually fell into disrepair over time.
The Imperial Library of Constantinople (Byzantine Empire)
The Imperial Library of Constantinople was founded by Emperor Constantius II (reigned 337–361 AD) during the 4th century AD. It was established in the city of Constantinople (today’s Istanbul, Turkiye) , which was the capital of the Byzantine Empire.
The library’s name, “Bibliotheca Alexandrina,” paid homage to the renowned Library of Alexandria in Egypt, emphasizing its ambition to be a center of learning and scholarship.
According to historians, the library amassed a substantial collection of manuscripts and books. It included a wide range of works on various subjects, including philosophy, theology, history, literature, and science. The library’s holdings were intended to rival the great libraries of antiquity.
The Imperial Library of Constantinople was open to scholars, theologians, and researchers. Access to its collections was granted to those seeking knowledge and conducting research.
READ MORE: Most Famous Rulers of the Byzantine Empire
It must also be noted that the library continued the Roman tradition of preserving and disseminating knowledge. It played a vital role in maintaining the intellectual heritage of the Roman Empire, especially as the western part of the empire faced decline and fragmentation.
Remarkably, a significant portion of what we know today about Greek classics is attributed to copies originating from the Imperial Library of Constantinople, underscoring its enduring influence on the transmission of knowledge.
Like many ancient libraries, the Imperial Library of Constantinople faced challenges during periods of turmoil and conflict. It suffered some bit of damage during the Nika Revolt in 532 AD but was likely restored. However, its fate during later periods remains uncertain.
Did you know…?
The Imperial Library of Constantinople, situated in the capital of the Byzantine Empire, held the distinction of being the final great library of the ancient world.
The Theban Temple Libraries (Egypt)
The Theban Temple Libraries were located in the city of Thebes, which served as the capital of ancient Egypt during different periods of its history. Thebes was renowned for its grand temples and cultural significance.
Historians note that the libraries were closely connected to the temples in Thebes, particularly the temples dedicated to the gods Amun, Mut, and Khonsu. Those three deities made up the Theban Triad.
The libraries housed a collection of texts and documents, including religious texts, rituals, administrative records, and scholarly writings. Many of these texts were related to the rituals and practices associated with the worship of the Egyptian gods.
The Theban Temple Libraries served multiple purposes. They were repositories of religious knowledge and sacred texts, which were essential for the rituals performed in the temples. Additionally, they were centers of learning and scholarship, where scribes and priests could study and copy texts.
READ MORE: List of Ancient Egyptians Deities
For example, there is the Theban Magical Library, which was a collection of magical texts primarily written in Greek and Demotic, dating from the third to fourth century. These papyri were discovered near Thebes (Luxor) and came into the possession of Giovanni Anastasi, a merchant and diplomat. Some of the papyri were later sold or donated to various collections. Scholars believe that the library may have belonged to one or more individuals or possibly a temple library of priests in Thebes. Ten papyri from the collection are identified with certainty, and seven others may have been part of it.
The libraries in Thebes often had scriptoria, which were dedicated spaces where scribes copied and created new texts. Scribes played a vital role in the production and preservation of these texts.
One surviving text from the Theban Magical Library is a papyrus codex dating to the fourth century, containing various magical recipes. It includes an oracle of Sarapis with specific instructions on pronunciation, a spell for a direct vision involving water from a shipwreck. Archeologists also found texts that contain a hymn to the Greek god Hermes written in dactylic hexameters. These texts offer insights into ancient magical practices and beliefs.
Unfortunately, like many ancient libraries, the Theban Temple Libraries faced challenges over time. Some texts were lost due to natural decay, while others were damaged or destroyed during periods of political upheaval and foreign invasions.
Library of Celsus (Ephesus, Anatolia)
The Library of Celsus was an ancient Roman library located in the city of Ephesus, which is today’s Selçuk in the İzmir Province of western Turkey. The structure was built in the 2nd century AD, during the Roman period. It was constructed in honor of Tiberius Julius Celsus Polemaeanus, a prominent Roman senator and consul, by his son Gaius Julius Celsus.
The library was situated in the heart of the ancient city of Ephesus, which was a major urban center in the Roman province of Asia. It was positioned at the eastern end of what is now known as Curetes Street.
This library was renowned for its impressive architectural design. It featured a two-story facade with a central niche that likely housed a statue of Celsus. The facade was adorned with columns and statues, creating a visually stunning appearance.
Constructed in the 2nd century AD in honor of the Roman Senator Tiberius Julius Celsus Polemaeanus, the Library of Celsus was more of a monumental tomb than a library in the traditional sense but did house around 12,000 scrolls. Image: Library of Celsus with Greco-Roman inscription.
Builders of the library intended for it to serve as a repository of knowledge and literature, which would in turn be make it a valuable resource for scholars and residents of Ephesus.
In addition to its role as a library, the building served as a mausoleum for Tiberius Julius Celsus Polemaeanus, whose tomb was located in a crypt beneath the library.
The library suffered damage and partial destruction over the centuries, primarily due to earthquakes. The facade of the library collapsed during a significant earthquake in the 10th century AD.
In the 1970s, a concerted effort was made to reconstruct the Library of Celsus using the original pieces that had been scattered around the site. Today, visitors to Ephesus can see the reconstructed facade, which is a testament to the library’s former grandeur.
Façade of the Celsus library, in Ephesus, near Selçuk, west Turkiye.
Library of Nippur (Ancient Sumer, Mesopotamia)
The Library of Nippur refers to a collection of cuneiform tablets and inscriptions discovered at the ancient city of Nippur, located in what is now Iraq.
Nippur was one of the most important cities in ancient Mesopotamia, situated in the region known as Sumer. It was a center of religious and cultural activity.
The tablets and inscriptions that make up the Library of Nippur were discovered during archaeological excavations at Nippur, which took place in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. These excavations were carried out by various archaeological teams.
Scholars state that the Library of Nippur comprised a diverse collection of cuneiform texts and inscriptions. These texts cover a wide range of topics, including religious rituals, mythological narratives, administrative records, legal documents, and scholarly writings.
The texts in the library are written in the cuneiform script, which was used for writing the Sumerian language and later Akkadian, a Semitic language. Many of the texts are bilingual, with both Sumerian and Akkadian versions.
Nippur was an important religious center in ancient Mesopotamia, and many of the texts in the library have religious and mythological content. They provide insights into the religious beliefs, rituals, and practices of the people of Nippur.
While the library’s texts have provided valuable historical and cultural insights, they were not part of a single organized library in the modern sense. Instead, they represent a collection of texts from various periods and sources in Nippur’s history.
The Library of Nippur, along with other ancient Mesopotamian libraries such as the Library of Ashurbanipal, has played a crucial role in our understanding of the ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia. These texts provide a window into the intellectual and cultural achievements of the region.
